Main description:

When I began graduate school in 1961, Physiological Psychology was alive with adventure and opportunity. It seemed possible, indeed easy, to determine which part of the brain influenced which aspect of behavior, and the relative absence of technical hurdles encouraged neophytes into the laboratory. New theories of brain function based on a wealth of reliable and provocative findings also stimu lated further laboratory investigation. And the results obtained in studies of food and fluid ingestion certainly were exciting, albeit perplexing. For example, eating could be stimulated by injecting one chemical agent into the rat brain, whereas drinking was stimulated by i~ecting a different chemical through the same hypothalamic cannula. After focal brain lesions rats would overeat but not work harder to obtain food. After other brain lesions in adjacent sites, rats would stop eating and drinking altogether, but ingestive behaviors would return gradu ally over a period of weeks or months despite permanent brain injury. Although some of these observations and related findings may provide less insight into the central control of ingestive behavior than had been believed initially, there was a strong impression then that much more was known about eating and drinking than other behaviors, and they became models of motivated activities in addition to being of interest in their own right. Twenty-two years ago, the American Physiological Society published the first handbook devoted exclusively to the subject of alimentary behavior.

Contents:

I Retrospective Essays.- 1 Brain and Behavior.- Retrospective View of Brain and Behavior.- The Physiology of Motivation.- Hedonic Processes.- Looking Back.- Looking Ahead.- References.- 2 Thirst and Sodium Appetite.- 1758: The Black Hole of Calcutta.- 1816: The Shipwreck of La Meduse.- 1936: McCance's Experimental Sodium Chloride Deficiency in Man.- 1821-1832: Dupuytren, Magendie, O'Shaughnessy, and Latta and the Relief of Thirst by Intravenous Fluid.- 1954: The Kidney and Thirst Regulation.- 1990: Renin-Angiotensin Systems, Thirst, and Sodium Appetite.- Conclusion.- References.- 3 Homeostatic Origins of Ingestive Behavior.- Physiological and Behavioral Contributions to Homeostasis.- Multiple Stimuli in the Control of Ingestive Behavior.- Behavioral Arousal and Stress.- Models of Ingestive Behavior.- Summary.- References.- 4 Behavioral Treatment of Obesity.- Why Behavior Therapy?.- Treatment of Adult Obesity.- Treatment of Childhood Obesity.- Interface of Behavioral Treatments with Basic Behavioral, Metabolic, and Genetic Research.- Behavioral Research.- Genetics.- Link Specific Treatments with Specific Etiologies.- Conclusions.- References.- II Food Intake and Caloric Homeostasis.- 5 The Ontogeny of Ingestive Behavior: Changing Control of Components in the Feeding.- The Sequential and Component Nature of Early Appetitive Behavior.- Separate Control of Appetitive Response Components.- The Sequence of Suckling Components in Rodents.- What Suckling Tells Us about Feeding Systems.- The Simple Independent Ingestive Responses of Young Rats.- The Final Ingestive Response Component Is Present at Birth.- Early Ingestive Responses Are Influenced by the Sensory Properties of Infused Diets.- Early Ingestive Responses Are Modulated by Changes in Physiological State.- The Onset of Feeding in Older Pups.- Summary of the Development of Rats' Final Ingestive Component.- Beyond the Final Ingestive Response Component: Extending Ingestion into the Environment.- Ingesting from the Floor.- Patterns of Spontaneous Independent Ingestion Change during Development.- Directing Ingestive Behavior.- Drinking versus Feeding: An Example of Control Only at an Initial Component in the Appetitive Sequence.- What Causes Developmental Change in Ingestive Behavior?.- Altered Signals of Physiological State?.- New Neural Controls of Ingestion.- Changing Contributions of Experience to the Control of Ingestion?.- Changing Organization, Hierarchies, and the Dynamics of Appetitive Expression and Control.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 6 Caudal Brainstem Participates in the Distributed Neural Control of Feeding.- An Approach to the Neural Basis of Feeding Behavior.- Response Topography.- Stimuli That Elicit, Sustain, and Terminate Consummatory Behavior.- Integration at Lowest Anatomical Level in the Neural Hierarchy.- An Investigation of the Contribution of the Caudal Brainstem to Food Intake Control.- The Caudal Brainstem Produces Consummatory Behavior.- The Caudal Brainstem Is Sufficient for the Production of Discriminative Responses to Taste.- The Caudal Brainstem Is Sufficient for Integration of Taste Afferent Input and Interoceptive Signals to Regulate Ingestive Consummatory Behavior.- Caudal Brainstem Orchestrates Autonomic as Well as Behavioral Compensatory Responses to Metabolic Challenge.- Caudal Brainstem Location of Metabolic Interoceptors Stimulating Both Behavioral and Autonomic Compensation.- Primacy of Caudal Brainstem Function: Conclusions and Qualifications.- Interoceptor Locations.- Integration.- Appetitive Behavior.- Comments.- References.- 7 Food Intake: Gastric Factors.- and Historical Overview.- The Upper Gastrointestinal Tract and Satiety.- The Stomach or Duodenum?.- The Nature of the Satiety Signal.- Oropharyngeal Factors.- Learning and Gastric Signals.- Satiety Signal Pathways.- Conclusion.- References.- 8 Systemic Factors in the Control of Food Intake: Evidence for Patterns as Signals.- Molecules, Stores, and Patterns: What Is the Form of Critical Signals?.- The Pattern of Blood Glucose Dynamics That Signals Meal Initiation.- Description of the Signal: Transient Declines in Blood Glucose.- Nature of the Signal.- Evidence for Causality.- Detection of the Signal.- Transient Declines in Blood Glucose in VMH-Lesioned Rats.- Conclusions.- References.- 9 Human Obesity: A Problem in Body Energy Economics.- Determinants of Body Fat Content and Their Interaction.- Genetic Factors.- Environmental Factors.- Constitutional Determinants.- Physiology of the Body's Energy Economy.- Energy Balance and Energy Stores: Interrelationships.- Energy Intake.- Energy Expenditure.- Thermic Response to Food.- Metabolie Role of Stored Triglyceride.- Spontaneous Variability in Man of Body Fat Content.- Uncertain Relationship between Body Weight and Body Fat Content.- The "Set-Point" Theory of Body Weight Regulation.- Inadequacies of the Set-Point Model.- Counterregulatory Mechanisms.- An Inventory Control Model.- The Concept of "Carrying Cost".- The Storage Capacity of Adipose Tissue.- The Triglyceride Depot Viewed as an Energy Reservoir.- Eating Behavior in Relation to the Size of the Energy Stores.- Putative Humoral Signals from Adipose Tissue.- Putative Neural Signals.- Insulin as an Adiposity Signal.- Effect of Nutritional Status on Regional Brain Metabolism.- Altering the Body's Inventory of Stored Energy.- Effects of Changes in Energy Expenditure on Depot Fat.- The Problem of Weight Regain in Formerly Obese Individuals.- References.- III Food Selection.- 10 Gustatory Control of Food Selection.- Organization of the Taste System.- Plasticity of Taste.- Plasticity Based on Experience.- Plasticity Based on Need.- Conclusion.- References.- 11 Comparative Studies of Feeding.- The Design of Feeding.- Preview.- Body Size and Feeding.- Variation in Energy Costs and Benefits with Body Size.- Advantages and Disadvantages as Body Size Varies.- Body Size and Variation in Food Quality.- Body Size and Variation in Foraging Costs.- Optimal Foraging.- Natural Selection and Feeding.- Problems and Criteria.- Dynamic Programming and Accounting for Hunger.- Information.- Nectar Feeders as Model Systems.- Search and Detection.- Ingestion.- Digestion and Assimilation.- Hunger.- Conclusions.- References.- 12 Food Selection.- Early Work on Food Selection.- The Centrality of Food Selection in Biology and Culture.- Neglect of the Study of Food Selection.- The Problem of Food Selection.- Storage and Internal versus Behavioral Solutions.- Regulation of Nutrient Levels.- The Loose Mapping between Nutrient and Sensory Categories.- Strategies of Food Selection.- The Specialists.- The Generalists.- The Specialist in the Generalist.- Models of Food Selection.- The Specialist Model: The Innate Hunger for Salt.- Learning about Foods: Poison Avoidance.- Acquired Preferences: The Paradigmatic Case of Thiamine-Specific Hunger.- The Wisdom of the Body: Need-Free Selection.- Deficit Correction or Deficit Avoidance.- The Foraging/Optimization Approach.- The Problem of Context.- The Hedonic Component in Food Choice.- The Structure of Food Preferences and Avoidances in Humans and Other Animals.- The Acquisition of Preferences.- Nonsocial Factors.- Social Factors.- Liking for Innately Unpalatable Substances.- Culture, Biology, and Human Food Choice.- Human Food Choice: Attitudes to Animal Foods.- Summary: Approaches to Food Choice.- References.- 13 Diet Selection and Poison Avoidance by Mammals Individually and in Social Groups.- Diet Selection.- Can Rats S elf-Select Adequate Diets?.- Causes of Failure in Self-Selection.- Are Cafeteria Feeding Studies Adequate Analogues of Diet Selection in Natural Habitat? A Developmental Perspective.- Social Solutions to Self-Selection Problems.- Poison Avoidance.- Should Rats Be Able to Avoid Cryptic Poison Baits?.- Are Laboratory Studies of Taste-Aversion Learning Adequate Analogues of Poison Avoidance Outside the Laboratory?.- Conclusion.- References.- IV Thirst, Sodium Appetite, and Fluid Homeostasis.- 14 Thirst and Water Balance.- Osmoregulation.- Characteristics of Osmoregulation in Animals.- Osmoreceptors or Sodium Receptors?.- Location of Osmoreceptors.- The Supraoptic Nucleus as the Site of the Osmoreceptors.- Volume Regulation.- Location of Receptors.- Renin-Angiotensin System.- Participation of Circulating Angiotensin II in Drinking and Vasopressin Secretion.- Connectivity.- Responses to Water Deprivation.- Chronic OVLT Lesions.- Role of Sodium Balance in the Control of Plasma Osmolality.- Satiety.- Summary and Conclusion.- References.- 15 Sodium Appetite.- Models of Sodium Appetite.- Hypothesis: Biological Bases of Sodium Appetite.- Models of Sodium Appetite: A Reconsideration.- Hypovolemia.- Adrenalectomy.- Deoxycorticosterone Treatment.- Concluding Remarks.- Integration of Water and NaCl Ingestion.- Importance of Central Inhibitory Systems in the Control of Sodium Appetite.- Aldosterone Likely Does Not Stimulate Sodium Appetite Directly but Indirectly.- Species Differences.- References.- 16 Clinical Aspects of Body Fluid Homeostasis in Humans.- Normal Physiology.- Water Balance.- Solute Balance.- Osmotic and Volume Homeostasis.- Disorders of Osmotic Homeostasis.- Hyperosmolality.- Hypoosmolality.- Disorders of Volume Homeostasis.- Hypovolemia.- Hypervolemia.- Summary.- References.- V Prospective Essays.- 17 The Behavioral and Neural Sciences of Ingestion.- Ingestive Behavior and Neural Processes.- Intake and Ingestive Behavior.- Beyond Chow and Water Intakes.- Fundamental Behavioral Issues for Ingestive Neurobiology.- Control of Intake Pattern.- From Phrenology to Network Engineering.- Neuroanatomy of Appetite.- Neuropharmacology and Neurochemistry of Appetite.- Neurophysiology of Appetite.- Physiological Functions of Neural Control.- Function and Mechanism.- Roles of Food Selection in Homeostasis.- Nutrition and Neuroscience.- Causal Analysis in Ingestive Neuroscience.- References.- 18 Prospectus: Thirst and Salt Appetite.- Thirst and Salt Intake.- The Nature of Thirst.- The Biological Diversity of Thirst.- Biological Diversity within Species.- Angiotensin as a Hormone of Thirst.- The Neural Substrates of Thirst.- Spontaneous or Freely Emitted Drinking Behavior.- The Ontogeny of Thirst, Especially in Mammals.- Salt Intake.- Salt Appetite.- Additional Aspects of the Hormonal Synergy.- Need-Free Salt Intake.- Summary.- References.- 19 Making Sense Out of Calories.- A Sensory Problem.- Brain versus Body.- Short Term versus Long Term.- How versus How Much.- Gustatory and Olfactory Sensations.- Gastrointestinal Sensations.- Gastric Signals.- Gut Peptides.- Metabolic Sensations.- A Metabolic Perspective.- The Stimulus.- The Receptor.- Metabolic Explanations.- Caloric Intake.- Eating Disorders.- Meal Patterns.- Toward an Integrated Picture.- Metabolic Perceptions.- Conclusion.- References.- 20 Clinical Issues in Food Ingestion and Body Weight Maintenance.- Proximate or Immediate Factor Collaboration between Clinicians and Basic Scientists.- Hypothalamic Obesity.- Cancer Anorexia.- The Ultimate or Distal Factor Collaboration among Clinicians and Basic Scientists.- "Simple" or Idiopathic Obesity.- Anorexia Nervosa.- Conclusion.- References.